Lithium is the key raw material in the transition away from fossil fuels, not only for electric vehicles, but in many other areas too. Although there is sufficient lithium in Europe, Europe fears depending on China for lithium and is therefore relying on supplies from countries such as Chile and Argentina. At the same time, there are ways to reduce our reliance on lithium, explains Dr Martin Bertau, Professor of Technical Chemistry at the Technical University of Freiberg in Saxony.
Prof Dr Martin Bertau, Head of the Institute for Technical Chemistry at the University of Freiberg in Saxony
Demand for lithium is enormous worldwide. Looking at the various types of battery – will the proportion of lithium need to remain this high in the long term? And how is it looking with the availability of other raw materials used in manufacturing, such as cobalt?
The lithium market is growing; this element is not only used in electric car batteries, but also in an increasing number of household appliances. What is really critical, however, is the supply of cobalt, which is needed for NMC batteries. If we continue to increase electrification, German demand alone could exceed the capacity of the global market. However, there are alternatives: lithium iron phosphate batteries are now much more powerful and perform similarly to NMCs. Sodium iron phosphate batteries are also gaining in popularity.
Lithium battery production in China.
Copyright: picture alliance / CFOTO
China takes a singular position in mining and processing lithium for electric car batteries. What is the reason for this, and do others stand a chance to catch up?
The way China continues to make heavy investment in its own technologies suggests that lithium batteries will remain on the market for some time to come. Furthermore, China recently announced the discovery of a substantial lithium ore deposit. In the long term, lithium ore extraction and production will remain in China. This will give China greater control over the market price. Following the high-price phase of 2022, when prices exceeded USD 84,000 per tonne, the price fell to USD 8,400 in July 2025, and is currently USD 11,400. It is assumed that the target price is around USD 10,000, whereas European lithium projects are reportedly budgeting for over USD 20,000. Zinnwaldite, a lithium-iron mica that occurs in Germany and the Czech Republic, offers considerable potential as a domestic raw material.
In order to reduce its dependence on China, the European industry is placing a heavy reliance on lithium sourced from Argentina and Chile. Are there any reasons against mining lithium in these countries?
Not in principle. If we source lithium from Chile and Argentina, we increase local prosperity and contribute to climate protection, so it is definitely worth considering. However, we should not pretend that electric cars are emission-free. They do not emit CO₂ on the road, but everywhere else, for instance through the energy that powers them. Manufacturing batteries and other vehicle components also causes emissions. This is where emissions occur with this type of vehicle. But I do consider it unethical to simply export the environmental burden to poorer countries just because we don't want to have mines here.
Isn’t the supply chain already responsible for a significant CO₂ burden?
Let me give you an example: the soda you need for the extraction of lithium carbonate from brine comes from Bernburg in Germany. It is transported by road to the port of Hamburg. From there, it is shipped to Latin America. Next, it is transported by road to the desert and then back to the port, before being shipped to China. This is where the initial processing of lithium batteries takes place. Then the journey continues on to South Korea. And from there, the finished batteries finally make their way here, either from South Korea or directly from China.
Lithium being extracted by mining lithium-containing rock, like here in Australia.
Copyright: picture alliance / Hans Lucas | Henrique Campos
What are the different types of lithium mining, and how do they differ from each other?
A fundamental distinction is made between salar lithium, which is extracted from salt lakes in South America, and mined lithium, which is extracted from minerals such as spodumene, which is found in Australia, for example. These are completely different types of ore. One is a salt, which is water-soluble; the other is a water-insoluble ore mineral. Spodumene must be heated to over 1,000 °C in order to release lithium. It is then dissolved in sulphuric acid. In salt lakes, the diluted lithium salt is concentrated in evaporation ponds where it is dried by the wind and heated by the sun. Both processes produce lithium carbonate, an important raw material for the battery industry that is extracted using soda, which is the same that you use for baking.
Lithium being extracted from the Salar salt flats in South America.
Copyright: conejota
There are protests in Argentina against lithium mining, as the local population in the north of the country fears it will deplete their water supplies.
This assessment should be made with caution. If groundwater is exploited and water is wasted, a decrease in the level of groundwater is possible. If lithium is extracted from groundwater reservoirs and chemicals or heavy metals are introduced as a result, there is no doubt that this should be viewed negatively. However, a distinction should be made here: lithium-containing salt lakes have formed in areas where more water evaporates than is replenished by freshwater, so water is a very precious commodity there. And pumping part of the brine from a salt lake is not the same as interfering with the groundwater system in populated regions.
In addition to evaporation, a new process has been developed for extracting lithium directly from the ground. In this method, the liquid is pumped back underground immediately after the lithium has been extracted.
One approach is to insert an electrode into the lithium brine to bind the lithium. When the electrode is withdrawn, the lithium can be released using an electric current. This means that the water remains relatively untouched. However, it is crucial that no part of the electrode enters the groundwater. If this method is effective, it is worth trying. But as soon as chemicals are used and substances enter the groundwater, I would be very hesitant. I cannot judge whether the process used there is technically mature enough. In any case, it is questionable whether it is absolutely necessary to tap into the groundwater in Argentina. They have their own salt lakes.
Is a new race for phosphates on the horizon?
I believe the question should be whether we are already in the midst of it. Lithium and sodium iron phosphate batteries require phosphoric acid, which makes phosphate a key resource. Currently, 10 per cent of the world’s phosphorus supply is used in batteries, followed closely by food production. Interestingly, China is the largest importer and exporter even though the largest deposits are actually in Morocco. Europe also has phosphate deposits, and Germany has been focusing on recycling it since 2017 – in fact, we are the global leader in this field. The world’s largest plant using the PARFORCE process, powered fully by renewable energies, is located in Bottrop. What is needed now is the consistent political implementation and promotion of domestic technologies, in order to avoid repeating the mistakes made with lithium, rare earths, and metals such as gallium, germanium, and indium.
It is often said that we depend on China for lithium. Is this true?
When it comes to lithium as a raw material, we are not dependent on China, but rather when it comes to the production of lithium batteries. This is a home-grown problem: how many battery factories are there in Germany or Europe? How many German companies can process lithium raw materials? Since September 2024, there has been a small plant in Bitterfeld that can process lithium ore – on a pilot project scale.
Lithium being mined from the mineral spodumene.
Copyright: BJP7images
So there is no shortage of raw materials in Europe?
No, for example, we have spodumene deposits, a classic lithium ore, in Portugal, Spain, Finland, France, Austria, and the Czech Republic. We also have zinnwaldites in Germany and the Czech Republic. The spodumene available to us in the EU is more than enough to supply Europe with lithium. In fact, Europe is a continent blessed with lithium.
What is stopping Germany from moving forward with the extraction of raw materials?
We no longer have the key industries needed to compete in this global market. Extracting metal from ore requires chemists, metallurgists, and engineers capable of transforming materials. What we have done is successfully relocate all these industries, which are vital for our future and the energy transition, outside the country. What are we left with? The Aurubis copper smelter in Hamburg, the Aue nickel smelter, the Nordenham zinc smelter, and the Stade aluminium smelter. If not the chemical industry, who should be involved in material conversion? With the industry that still exists in this country, we are nowhere near capable of achieving independence.
We subsidise projects in Europe to extract lithium from domestic raw materials or to recycle lithium but we do not actually have the companies that can process this extracted lithium into batteries. What we have is subsidiaries in China. Porsche is also currently withdrawing from battery production.
“Germany lacks in everything. Except second-guessing and bureaucracy.”
So even though we have our own lithium, we are out of the race?
We have lost most of our confidence. To get from decision-making to extraction, it takes ten to twelve years, and even an exploration permit is difficult to obtain in Germany. At the same time, it must be done in an environmentally friendly way – which modern mining is capable of. Furthermore, we wouldn’t need to extract all the lithium or rare earths ourselves; just a third of our own production would make us more independent. However, we are currently at zero in terms of both mining and extraction, processing, and battery production. We lack in everything. Except second-guessing and bureaucracy.
What opportunities does the decline in Germany’s raw material extraction and processing offer?
I don’t like that perspective. We can look at it another way: now that we’ve finally rid ourselves of the old technologies and production facilities, we can build companies in Europe that can produce exactly what we need using new, more efficient processes. We would be able to produce more raw products more quickly with less refining effort, and we could supply the domestic market at completely different prices. We need to start feeling excited about the future again!
Copyright: piranka
You have repeatedly advocated openness to technology. Which technologies should we be open to?
All of them. When you buy a car, it’s not because you want a particular type of drive system. Rather, you want to be able to get around. To get from A to B, and maybe even enjoy driving, which is not something to be ashamed of. As long as drive technology fails to be sustainable, we have no choice but to consider alternatives. People need mobility, including individual mobility. Whether mobility has to be as inefficient as it is today is a different matter entirely. If we are serious about doing something for the climate, we need to be open to new technologies.
Which alternatives do you see?
Combustion engines could be powered by e-fuels, such as CO₂-neutral synthetic fuels. Generator-electric drives have been used in diesel locomotives for decades and can reduce overall consumption. Why should they not be used in cars too? With classic combustion engines, different load ranges require different speeds. This reduces efficiency. This issue can be resolved using today’s technology. In a generator-electric drive, a small displacement engine runs in an optimal, low-emission range. With a small cylinder, it generates electricity and feeds the battery. The battery then feeds the wheel hub drive and off we go!
People say about e-fuels that there isn’t enough to go around.
The topic of e-fuels is ideologically controversial in Germany. Yet the solution is simple: around 65 per cent of the waste burned in our incineration plants is biomass. Two-thirds of the CO₂ emitted by these plants is green, while the remaining third serves to protect the environment. Had we invested in hydrogen production when mandatory waste incineration was introduced in 2004, we could now use this CO₂ to produce methanol and then use the methanol to produce e-fuels to power our cars. This would cover 90 per cent of our current fuel requirements. Green fuel, mind you!
“Give the people cars with lithium batteries by all means – but make it so they don’t come with hidden CO₂ baggage or cause no environmental destruction in the producing countries!”
What are the prospects for pure electric mobility?
Transparency is key, and that means telling people the truth. Citizens have realised that they must contribute to climate protection, too. And they do want to. If they were properly informed, they would also be willing to pay more for a better car. We need politicians to create the right conditions to ensure that using electric cars really does protect the climate. Give the people cars with lithium batteries by all means – but make it so they don’t come with hidden CO₂ baggage or cause environmental destruction in the producing countries!
